.In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful

Summary – 3

In this lesson, we continue studying grammar relationships for connecting the sentences.

1. Concession/Contrast relationship:

   If two contradicting cases have taken place simultaneously, we use the following connecting devices:

1. He was clever but/yet he failed the exam.          2. I know the effects of the disease, however (nonetheless, nevertheless) I don’t know its causes.

3. Although (though, even though) he is young, he is allowed to lead the army.    

4.  In spite of (Despite, Notwithstanding) being young, he is allowed to lead the army.

Notice: the use of “as though”: He looks as though (as if) he was sick.

2. Conclusion/Deduction relationship:

1. She was very kind; therefore (hence, thus, so) she treated him well.       

 2. They worked hard. As a result (Consequently), they gained a lot of money.

3. If he does so, he must be mad.  (conclusion in present).

4. I can’t find my keys. I must have forgotten them in the office.  (conclusion in past).

For negative conclusion:

     1. She can’t be stupid.      

     2. They can’t have caught up the bus because they got up late.

3. Relative Clause:

1. Are you the student who lost his book ?   (student is subject; use: who for persons).

2. I know the girl whom you talk about.   (girl is object; use: whom for persons).

3. This is the pipe which leaks.  (pipe is subject; use: which for non-persons).

4. Have you seen the house which I bought ? (house is object; use: which for non-

     persons).   

5. They grow trees whose leaves are shady.  (use “whose” for possession).

6. They grow trees the leaves of which are shady.  (use “preposition + which” for

     possession).

Note (A): A relative pronoun my be accompanied with a “preposition”:

        a).  i) He found the books, six of which are torn out.

             ii) He found the books, of which six are torn out.

        b) That is the point from which we start.

         c) i) This the employer with whom I work.

             ii) This the employer whom I work with.

Note (B):Defining and Non-defining relative clause:

1. Defining: The book which we study is easy. (no commas to separate the relative clause.)

2. Non-defining: Sudan, which is big, cultivates cotton. (there is one Sudan, use two

     commas).

3. They passed the exam which is easy. (defining: they passed only the easy exam).

4. They pass the exam, which is easy. (non-defining: it was easy to pass all exams).